The valley was dominated by the Mughals, Afghans, Sikhs and Dogras in the 18th and 19th centuries who left indelible imprints on its architecture, says Feisal Alkazi
In 18th and 19th centuries (1752-1846), two extremely oppressive regimes ruled over the Valley. First came the Afghans, of whom a local poet wrote Sir buridanpesh in sangin dilan gulchidan ast. Describing the brutality of the Afghan rulers, the writer says that they thought no more of cutting off heads than of plucking a flower.
Twenty-two different governors ruled over Kashmir in the 67 years of Afghan rule. As a result, Afghan rule proved to be a very negative episode in Kashmiri history. While the Mughals had taken one-third of the produce as revenue for the state, under the Afghans this increased to half. As in other parts of India at the time, jagirdari rights (rights to collect land revenue) were auctioned off to the highest bidder resulting in further exploitation of the peasantry. Forced free labour or beggar was reintroduced in the Afghan period, a practice that emperor Akhar had banned. The change from Mughal to Afghan rule in the eighteenth century may be seen as the beginning of decay of the urban fabric.
Above all, the axis of the Mughal Empire — the Grand Trunk Road — was completely redirected by the Afghans. The new route, in the eighteenth century, circumvented Punjab and Delhi, and, from Afghan ruled Kashmir, the caravans could now reach Peshawar and Kabul without touching Sikh territory. Further, the economic and cultural links between Kashmir and Central Asia continued uninterrupted, as did Kashmiri literary activities, which continued to flourish through contact with Central Asia and Persia.
The Afghan governor Amir Khan Jawan Sher was responsible for building the palace-fort complex of Sherghari, the bridge of Amir Kadal, digging the water causeway of Nallah-i-Amir Khan linking Nagin lake to Khushal Sar-Gil Sar. The nallah provided an alternate route for the flood water of Dal lake to join the water of the Jhelum above the city limits. Another Afghan governor, Ata Mohammed Khan Barakzai was responsible for constructing a fort on top of Hari Parbat.
Next came the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh. Devastating famines during these years resulted in a quarter of the Kashmiri population either dying of starvation or moving out of the Valley in search of work.
The condition of the people went from bad to worse. Early snowfall destroyed the rice crops, leading to years of famine, then came cholera, and finally plague. Thousands died, thousands more left the Valley — the population of Kashmir fell from 8 lakh to 2 lakh by the 1840s. Summing up the Sikh rule, Baron Charles von Hugel wrote: “After so much conquest, what can remain of originality to these inhabitants of the valley, after so many changes of rulers, each in turn eager to destroy the works of his predecessorsIJ”
After the death of Ranjit Singh in 1830, a mutiny in the Sikh army sent the whole of Punjab into confusion, paving the way for the Dogras to take over the Valley. Maharaja Gulab Singh bought all the hilly and mountainous country situated to the east of Indus, and west of the Ravi from the British for `75 lakh. He was a man of great vigour, foresight, and determination. He repressed opposition and crime with an iron fist and was universally feared and respected.
Gulab Singh laid down the economic structure of the Valley whereby the distribution of rice became a monopoly of the state. The government set the price of rice and other commodities and undertook their supply to the city population. Similarly, the Dagh Shawl Department that controlled the taxation and production of shawls was reorganised and brought firmly under the control of the state. The Maharaja died in 1857 and was succeeded by Maharaja Ranbir Singh who ruled from 1858 to 1885. During his reign the various state departments were organised on the pattern of departments as they existed in British India.
The British became suspicious of the Dogras, particularly as their own interest in the affairs of Central Asia increased in the 1870s. This culminated in the establishment of the British Residency and a state council to run the affairs of the state in 1889.
It was during the years of Maharaja Sir Pratap Singh’s rule that the real modernisation of the state took place and several progressive reforms carried through. Sir Walter lawrence carried out the first assessment of the land revenue system on scientific lines. The Jhelum valley road and Banihal Cart road were built, linking the state with the rest of India.
There was development in the means of communication and telegraphs, telephones and post offices were opened in many places. The isolation of Kashmir from the rest of the country was over, and large numbers of people, mostly Europeans began to visit the Valley. There were many efforts made by Englishmen to buy land to build houses which the Maharaja refused to entertain, and this led to the construction of house boats.
A scheme of drainage, reclaiming waste-land and preventing floods by digging flood channels was put into operation. Construction of a water reservoir at Harwan and the establishment of an electricity generating plant at Mohra was also undertaken. Two colleges and a large number of educational institutions were established.
The beginning of Sikh and Dogra rule in the nineteenth century also marked the advent of European influences both architecturally as well as culturally. After the death of Maharaja Pratap Singh, his nephew Maharaja Sir Hari Singh ascended the throne in 1925. He continued to govern the state till 1950. The birth of political parties and the growth of political consciousness mark this period. But even more important was the liberation of the country from the British yoke in 1947. It was on 28 January 1957 that the Kashmir Constituent Assembly ended the hereditary rule of the Dogra monarchy, exactly one-hundred-and-ten years after its establishment.
Excerpts from Srinagar: An Architectural legacy (Roli Books)